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1 [1] (June 1, 2026)

handle is hein.crs/goveult0001 and id is 1 raw text is: China Primer: Illicit Fentanyl and China's Role For over a decade, the synthetic opioid fentanyl and fentanyl-related substances have been key drivers of the U.S. opioid crisis. Countering the illicit trafficking of fentanyl and the precursor chemicals (precursors) used to make it has been a U.S. priority. In 2017, the U.S. Department of State first identified the People's Republic of China (PRC, or China) as the main source of U.S.-bound fentanyl and fentanyl precursors. Since the PRC imposed domestic controls on fentanyl-related substances in 2019, which curtailed almost all direct shipments of fentanyl from China to the United States, many U.S. policymakers have shifted focus. A chief concern of U.S. policymakers today is the role of China-the global leader in chemical sales- as the primary source of precursors used by transnational criminal organizations (TCOs) to synthesize fentanyl and its analogues in third countries (chiefly Mexico). Congress has sought to address China's shifting role in the illicit drug trade, including through provisions in the BUST Fentanyl Act in the National Defense Authorization Act for FY2026. ackground Fentanyl is a potent synthetic opioid that has been used medically as a painkiller and an anesthetic since it was first synthesized in 1959. Due to fentanyl's potential for abuse and addiction, the United Nations (UN) placed it under international control in 1964. Domestically, fentanyl is regulated by the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), pursuant to the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970, as amended (21 U.S.C. §§801 et seq.). The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimate that synthetic opioids (primarily fentanyl-related substances) resulted in about 37,393 U.S. overdose deaths in 2025-a decrease of 52% from the peak of 77,695 deaths from July 2022-June 2023. As of April 2026, the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB)-an independent expert body that monitors governments' compliance with UN drug control conventions-reported the existence of 183 fentanyl-related substances with no known legitimate use. The UN Office on Drugs and Crime estimates that laboratories could potentially synthesize thousands of fentanyl-related substances. More than 30 fentanyl-related substances, including precursors, are controlled (scheduled) internationally pursuant to the UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 1961, as amended, and the UN Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances of 1988. UN member states began scheduling fentanyl precursors for international control in 2017. As of May 2026, the INCB had scheduled seven fentanyl precursors for international control. Sources and Traffickin Pathways According to the DEA, fentanyl sourced from China accounted for 97% of high-purity fentanyl seized from shipments to the United States in 2016 and 2017. In 2019, Updated June 1, 2026 in response to U.S. concerns expressed by the first Trump Administration, the PRC government controlled fentanyl substances as a class, leading to a major change in trafficking patterns. According to the Department of State's March 2025 International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (INCSR), almost no fentanyl or fentanyl analogues have been detected directly entering the United States from [China] since the PRC implemented controls over fentanyl- related substances as a class in 2019. (The report notes that production of U.S.-bound illicit fentanyl and analogues is now concentrated in Mexico.) China and India are the primary source countries for illicit fentanyl precursor chemicals and pill pressing equipment, according to the U.S. intelligence community's March 2026 Annual Threat Assessment. China's massive chemical and pharmaceutical industries make the PRC a primary supplier not only of precursors for fentanyl, but also for illicit drugs including methamphetamine, ketamine, and nitazenes. Because of the PRC's role as a supplier of precursors, the President has designated China a major illicit drug producing or drug transit country since 2023, following Congress' 2022 amendment (P.L. 117-263) of the definition to include synthetic drugs and their precursors. U.S. Executive Branch Actions Successive administrations have acted to address China's role in the trafficking of fentanyl and its precursors. The United States has sanctioned PRC citizens and PRC-based companies. Over the past decade, the executive branch also has indicted dozens of PRC citizens and PRC-based companies for their alleged involvement in the trafficking of synthetic drugs, precursor chemicals, and pill making equipment, and related money laundering. In December 2025, the second Trump Administration, through Executive Order (E.O.) 14367, designated illicit fentanyl and its core precursor chemicals as Weapons of Mass Destruction. The second Trump Administration has sought to address China's role in the U.S. opioid epidemic in part through trade-related actions. On February 1, 2025, the White House issued E.O. 14195, which expanded the national emergency the President declared in January 2025 (Proclamation 10886) to cover the PRC government's alleged failures to interdict suppliers of precursors, money launderers, and other actors related to TCOs. The order subsequently imposed an additional 10% tariff on PRC products pursuant to authorities including those under the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA). In February 2026, after various changes to tariff rates by the Administration in 2025, the Supreme Court invalidated tariffs imposed under IEEPA authorities, including those on PRC products. In 2025, the President also directed duty-free de minimis treatment to be suspended for low-value imports from China (premised on the alleged use of such shipments